Language in Use
Having described various kinds of syntactic structures and what they mean we see that people often don't seem to say what they mean. They use languages differently from its apparent meaning; it has functions are different from the apparent structure.
Example: Could I get you to open that window?
How'd you like to hand me that wrench?
Would it be too much trouble for me to ask you to hand me that wrench?
I know this is an imposition, but could you possiblly open the window?
instead of
Open the window, Hand me the wrench, etc.
Sentence Structure and the Function of utterances
We are `used to' having questions being used to ask for information, declarative sentences to state something, and imperative sentences to give orders. But the following may also occur:
[Form: request:] Can I ask you to please refrain from smoking?
[Function: command:} (= Please stop smoking!)
[Form: Statement:] We ask that you extinguish your cigarettes at this time, and bring your tray tables and seatbacks to an upright position.
[Function: command:] (= Stop smoking and sit up straight!)
[Form: question] Well, would you listen to that!
[Function: exclamation] (= That's really something to listen to.)
Speech Acts
Speech acts are verbal actions that accomplish something: we greet, insult, compliment, plead, flirt, supply information, and get work done.
Types of Speech Acts
Representatives: assertions, statements, claims, hypotheses, descriptions, suggestions.
Commissives: promises, oaths, pledges, threats, vows.
Directives: commands, requests, challenges, invitations, orders, summons, entreaties, dares.
Declarations: blessings, firings, baptisms, arrests, marrying, juridial speech acts such as sentencings, declaring a mistrial, declaring s.o.out of order, etc.
Expressives: Speech acts that make assessments of psychological states or attitudes: greetings, apologies, congratulations, condolences, thanksgivings...
Verdictives: rankings, assessments, appraising, condoning (combinations such as representational declarations: You're out!)
